Microsoft Windows

Microsoft Windows, commonly referred to as Windows, is a family of proprietary graphical operating systems developed by Microsoft, which includes various products for different markets and industries that use a similar user interface and feature set. The original version of Windows was an operating environment that ran on top of MS-DOS, although later versions increasingly took on the characteristics of a full operating system. Since Windows XP, all desktop versions of Windows use the portable NT hybrid kernel that does not rely on MS-DOS.

The Windows family currently encompasses the main consumer version named simply Windows, as well as Windows Server for the server market and Windows IoT for the embedded market, although they are all based on the common desktop Windows codebase. Internally, another variant called Windows Core OS is also currently in development, which is also based on the NT kernel, although it is not based on desktop Windows. In the past, the family also included Windows RT for ARM-based tablets, Windows Phone and Windows Mobile for smartphones, Windows Embedded Compact, or the MS-DOS based line.

Since Windows 95, most Windows versions have used the same user interface that included the Start menu, a taskbar on the edge of the screen and a desktop, as well as overlapping or full screen windows with controls in their top right.

16-bit Windows
Microsoft Windows debuted to the world during the Fall COMDEX 1983 computer expo as an operating environment running on top MS-DOS. The final version of the product with the version number of 1.01 was later released on 20 November 1985 and did not gain much popularity. Windows 1.0 was a cooperative multitasking desktop environment with a tiling window manager. The first versions of Windows used the MS-DOS Executive, which was a simple file manager, as a shell, which is generally the first application ran on startup providing the user experience. Other applications included in the first version of Windows included Calculator, Cardfile, Clipboard Viewer, Clock, Control Panel, Notepad, Paint, Reversi, Spooler, Terminal, and Write. Three minor updates were released in the two following years adding support for more hardware.

A major update called Windows 2.0 was released in 1987 adding features such as overlapping windows, which later lead to Apple filing a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple%20Computer,%20Inc.%20v.%20Microsoft%20Corp. lawsuit] for copyright infringement. This version also introduced general support for VGA and PS/2 mouse (later OEM versions of Windows 1.0 already included it). A separate edition called Windows/386 was also introduced that took advantage of the virtual 8086 mode of the i386 processor to multitask MS-DOS applications under Windows; this would be later known as the 386 Enhanced Mode and become the cornerstone of Windows 9x. In later revisions of the Windows 2.0 series, the original edition was renamed Windows/286.

Windows 3.0 was released in 1990 and became the first widely successful version of Windows. The new features included a revamped user experience consisting of the Program Manager, which allowed easy management of installed applications. A new File Manager was also included to replace the former shell, which was now deprecated. The previously separate 286 and 386 editions of Windows were unified into one version with the ability to operate in three different modes according to the hardware configuration:
 * Real mode, which was intended for computers with the original 8088/8086 processor. This was also the only mode which fully supported applications written for earlier versions of Windows.
 * Standard mode, which used the protected mode feature of the 286 and 386 processors in order to gain access to memory beyond the first 640K, although it still switched to real mode to run MS-DOS applications.
 * 386 Enhanced mode, which in addition to the protected mode also used the 386 processor's ability to create and manage virtual machines for real mode MS-DOS applications.

A major update dubbed Windows 3.1 followed in 1992, introducing the new flag logo with colored panes. The user interface was refreshed in this release, including new, more vivid icons. This version of Windows removed support for real mode and the MS-DOS Executive application. It was accompanied by a variant called Windows for Workgroups 3.1 with integrated networking support, which later received a larger update with version number 3.11, introducing 32-bit disk access and also removing the Standard mode. The regular variant of Windows also received the 3.11 update, although it was merely the kernel of Windows for Workgroups 3.11 backported to Windows 3.1.

A 32-bit TCP/IP stack was ported from an early version of Windows 95 and released in 1994 as a downloadable plugin for Windows for Workgroups 3.11, providing early testing for the 16/32-bit compatibility features of the next version of Windows.

Windows NT
In 1988, Microsoft hired Dave Cutler, a former DEC engineer, to create a portable 32-bit version of OS/2, the operating system that it worked on in collaboration with IBM. At the time, OS/2 was a 16-bit operating system very much tied to the x86 platform with considerable DOS heritage. The new operating system intended to be a preemptive multitasking system with multiprocessing support. The design included a portable kernel with executive services layered on top of a hardware abstraction layer, and multiple environmental subsystems running in user mode offering support for multiple APIs. Portable OS/2, or NT OS/2, would have included support for both 16-bit and extended 32-bit variant of the OS/2 API, as well as virtual DOS machines and an implementation of the POSIX standard, which would allow Microsoft to run for US government contracts. Commercial release was planned for the early 1990s with NT shipping as OS/2 3.0, while IBM was adding 32-bit support to the original OS/2 codebase to create OS/2 2.0.

Initially, NT was developed for the Intel i860 processor, partially to ensure portability by preventing programmers from introducing x86-specific paradigms into code. When the team learned about the disappointing performance of the i860, the operating system was ported to the i386 and MIPS architectures.

Following the success of Windows 3.0 in 1990, Microsoft revised its OS/2 plans as a part of its new "Windows Everywhere" strategy, which tried to position Windows as a common environment that could run the same apps on DOS and OS/2 as well as on the new NT platform. This included the addition of a Windows subsystem to OS/2 3.0 as a peer to the existing OS/2 environment. After the Microsoft-IBM cooperation collapsed, the design of NT was further changed as the Windows became the main environment providing the system's user interface, while OS/2 support was reduced to character mode OS/2 1.x applications. The change was first announced in January 1991 with the new operating system initially being called Advanced Windows.

User interface was added to Windows NT in the first half of 1991, with network support following during summer. The first prototype version was shipped to selected partners in September and the new operating system was publicly demonstrated for the first time at Fall COMDEX 1991 in October. A MIPS build first shipped in a December release. Later builds added crucial components such as the registry, NTFS and the ability to run 16-bit MS-DOS and Windows applications. Windows NT 3.1 was finally released on 27 October 1993 in workstation and server flavors.

DEC filed a lawsuit during NT development, alleging that Microsoft used stolen code from the DEC Mica operating system. The case was settled out of court, with Microsoft adding support for the DEC Alpha processor in an updated version of Windows NT 3.1.

The next minor version, Windows NT 3.5 was released in 1994 and included performance improvement as well as a new full TCP/IP stack, long filename (LFN) support on the FAT file system and other refinements. Windows NT 3.51 was released in 1995, which ensured compatibility with the upcoming Windows 95 and added support for the PowerPC architecture, the PCMCIA interface, as well as file compression, or replaceable GINA.

Windows 9x
Microsoft first announced a 32-bit version of Windows that would run on top of MS-DOS in 1991. Several plans for a low-end Win32 environment were considered, including a variant of the NT kernel cut down in order to run on an average Windows 3.1 computer. In the end, Microsoft decided to build the new version on top of MS-DOS and Windows in 386 Enhanced mode.

On 24 August 1995, Microsoft released Windows 95, previously known under its codename "Chicago", with a brand new user interface with a Start menu, taskbar, and the desktop, as provided by the new Windows Explorer. Its hybrid 16/32-bit architecture made it possible to make and run 32-bit Windows applications and drivers while keeping a great degree of compatibility with already existing 16-bit ones. Among other improvements in this version was the support for long filenames through an extension to the FAT16 file system.

Windows 95 was the first widespread release of Windows to be integrated with a specific MS-DOS version, although Windows 3.1 was also available before in combined packages with MS-DOS 5 and later MS-DOS 6, which were based on the Janus project. However, MS-DOS 7 in Windows 95 was used only as a bootloader and a compatibility layer for ancient device drivers. Most MS-DOS user applications were either extended with Windows code or entirely replaced with a Windows version, keeping only the ones that were required to run without Windows, e.g. during the OS installation, such as  and.

The new user interface was also ported to the Windows NT line, with several Shell Technology Previews being released for Windows NT 3.51 during the development of Chicago and the Shell Update Release shipping in 1996 as Windows NT 4.0. Alongside the new shell, Windows NT 4.0 also notably moved a part of the GUI stack into kernel mode, which greatly improved performance.

During its lifetime Windows 95 saw several larger updates dubbed the OEM Service Releases (OSR) that were released only to computer manufacturers, specifically OSR 1.0, OSR 2.0, OSR 2.1, and OSR 2.5. A Service Pack was also released that updated an RTM copy of Windows 95 to the OSR 1.0 level. In 1997 a USB Supplement was released for OSR 2.x that added support for the then-new Universal Serial Bus interface.

The classic Windows line received a major update on 25 June 1998 with the release of Windows 98, codenamed "Memphis". It was the first version to integrate Internet Explorer deeply into the operating system's user interface as a part of the Windows Desktop Update. Many parts of the UI started using HTML and Internet Explorer's rendering engine to present a web-like user interface. A feature called Active Desktop made it even possible to set a webpage as the desktop background. Under the hood Windows 98 introduced the new Windows Driver Model, which enabled the use of the same drivers on Windows 9x as well as on the radically different Windows NT based operating systems.

A year later, Windows 98 received an update which was called the Second Edition, which included a new version of Internet Explorer, added Internet Connection Sharing and improved USB support.

In 2000, Windows Me (Millennium Edition), the last release of the classic Windows line was released. It carried over the improvements made to the user interface in its NT-based counterpart, Windows 2000. Windows Me is based on Windows 98, however, access to the real mode MS-DOS was restricted in order to decrease boot time among other changes to the kernel. It was infamously known for its stability problems partially caused by the rushing of its release following the cancelation of the Neptune project. It was replaced by Windows XP in 2001, ending the era of classic Windows.

Windows 2000 and Windows XP
In the late 1990s it became more feasible to discontinue the aging Windows 9x line and release a consumer version based on Windows NT. Microsoft started work on the the next version of Windows NT immediately after the release of Windows NT 4.0, which would improve the user experience of the high-end operating system. Similar to Memphis, the user interface of Windows NT 5.0 initially used Internet Explorer 4.0 with the Windows Desktop Update, being later updated to 5.0 and then 5.5 during development. Management tools, most of which were left unchanged since the first NT release, were rewritten using the new Microsoft Management Console. On servers, the new version brought improvements from the canceled Cairo project, such as Active Directory.

Beside working on the successor of Windows NT 4.0, Microsoft also released several new editions based on the NT 4.0 codebase. An Enterprise edition of Windows NT 4.0 Server was released in 1997, which was the predecessor of the Advanced Server SKU of later versions and was intended for high traffic and high demand workloads. Terminal Server Edition followed in 1998, which introduced the Terminal Services feature, allowing remote access to Windows computers. Windows NT Embedded 4.0 was introduced in 1999, a specialized version of the Workstation edition that allowed embedded vendors to pick only the required OS components for the intended workloads.

As Windows NT 5.0 got further delayed, the consumer NT aspect was moved into a following release codenamed Neptune, which would succeed Windows 98 and later Windows Me. In 1998, Microsoft announced that Windows NT 5.0 would be called Windows 2000, dropping the NT moniker to mark the NT technology becoming mainstream. In the end, it was released on 17 February 2000 with Internet Explorer 5.5 and earned the reputation as one of the most stable versions of Windows.

Work on Neptune begun several months before Windows 2000 was finished. The Neptune team heavily cooperated with the team working on Millennium, with the two projects sharing certain components. Development concentrated on a new task-oriented user interface called Activity Centers, which was also included in contemporary Millennium builds. The project also toyed around with the idea of hybrid startup, later implemented in Windows 8. Neptune was canceled in early 2000 together with its business counterpart codenamed Odyssey and replaced with a new, more conservative project codenamed Whistler that would eventually become Windows XP.

Windows XP was released on 25 October 2001 and was a relatively minor update to Windows 2000, mostly focusing on user experience and better compatibility with Windows 9x. A new theme called Luna was introduced, replacing the classic theme used in previous versions. A new login screen and fast user switching was also added, as well as better support for digital cameras, MS-DOS emulation and wireless networking. Windows XP was originally released in Home Edition and Professional variants, with an embedded version following a few months after. The 64-Bit Edition was also originally launched for the Itanium (IA-64) architecture.

Two additional editions for consumer use were introduced in 2002, both based on the original Professional edition. Windows XP Media Center Edition added the Windows Media Center (and later the Royale theme), while Windows XP Tablet PC Edition added tools and games for use on a tablet PC.

Development of the server counterpart continued after the release of the client version, resulting in Windows Server 2003, which was released in spring 2003 and used a newer kernel. It was also the base for an updated version of the Windows XP 64-Bit Edition. Work on an AMD64 version started late in the development process and finished in 2005 with the release of x64 editions of both Windows Server 2003 and Windows XP Professional (also based on 2003 codebase).

The Windows XP Starter Edition was introduced in 2004 for developing markets, including various Asian and South American countries and Russia. It is based on the original Home Edition, but is noticeably more limited with some features removed and only 3 programs being allowed to run at a time.

Windows Vista and Windows 7
Work on a new, major release of Windows started already before Whistler concluded development. The project, codenamed Blackcomb as a reference to the Whistler Blackcomb ski resort in British Columbia, was originally announced as the successor of Windows XP with new features such as a .NET user interface, integration with web services, or an advanced storage subsystem. However, the company realized that it wouldn't be able to hit the expected release date of late 2002 with the planned feature set and decided to first ship a bridge-gap release known as Longhorn, named after a bar between the two mountains, followed by Blackcomb itself in 2003 or 2004.

Development of Longhorn started in 2002, initially as a spinoff of the still-ongoing server version of Windows XP. At the time, Longhorn work was mostly confined to, the lab that worked on the Windows shell and user experience. As Windows Server 2003 finished development, Longhorn development fully took off as new features such as Avalon or WinFS were added. With the cancellation of Longhorn Server in late 2002, most user experience features were moved to Longhorn while server-oriented improvements were slated for Blackcomb.

As development progressed, many features originally planned for Blackcomb became part of Longhorn, causing both projects to be postponed even further. The project was subject to severe feature creep, as well as organizational issues. Many components were extended using .NET and Managed C++, both still relatively new technologies at the time, which lead to increasing stability issues. Most builds were plagued with memory leaks, resulting in only two semi-public releases during this period.

In the end, the Longhorn project was reset in the middle of 2004. The feature set was reviewed and many features such as WinFS or Castles were postponed or canceled in order to create a more realistic set of goals for the new major version. The remaining features were reimplemented in C/C++ as a ban on .NET code was introduced, with the exception of Windows Media Center. The first build of Longhorn after the reset was released to WinHEC 2005 attendees in the spring of 2005, followed by the first beta release three months later, which introduced the Windows Vista name.

The development continued at a steady pace, with Beta 2 shipping in May 2006 and two release candidates following in the months after. Windows Vista was finally released on 30 January 2007 in considerably more editions than its predecessor, which included Starter, Home Basic, Home Premium, Business, Ultimate and Enterprise. The new version included a new overhauled user interface called Windows Aero, as well as new security features such as User Account Control. It grew on to become one of the most disliked releases of Windows due to the large jump in system requirements caused by the long gap since the last Windows release. Computer manufacturers marking underperforming systems as Vista Capable also contributed to its bad reputation. The server counterpart, Windows Server 2008 was released a year later on 27 February 2008 and is based on Windows Vista Service Pack 1.

As Windows Vista was nearing completion in early 2006, the Blackcomb project was renamed to Vienna. However, so many features have been postponed into it after the development reset in 2004 that its objectives became very unrealistic, which lead to its eventual cancelation. A new project codenamed Windows 7 was set up in its place, which aimed to make minor improvements to the core Windows Vista experience such as the introducing the Superbar, Libraries or Homegroups and address the negative feedback its predecessor faced. It was released on 22 October 2009 together with Windows Server 2008 R2 and became one of the most popular versions, with as much as 20% of all Windows users still using it as of 2021.

Look and feel
Windows allowed customization of its user interface since its first versions. Windows 1.0 and Windows 2.x allowed the user to change the color scheme in their Control Panel, however, there was no selection of pre-made color schemes and the user could only reset to the default scheme by manually editing.

This was improved with Windows 3.0 and its new Colors control panel, which added several color schemes for the user to choose from. Windows NT 3.1 and Windows NT 3.5x also featured the same customization options, although compared to 16-bit Windows where the default preset was provided by the video driver, the defaults were device independent on the new operating system.

Windows 95 introduced a new 3D look inspired by NeXTSTEP and initially only made use of solid colors. This was subsequently refined in Windows 98 and Windows 2000 with the possibility to use 2-color gradients for the titlebar.

Windows XP introduced visual styles, a set of bitmaps that allowed deeper customization of user interface elements. The original release of Windows XP shipped with Luna, while later releases also included Royale. However, users could still switch to Windows Classic if they so chose, which was necessary for accessibility functions such as the High Contrast themes that relied on the classic theme's ability to set individual colors.

Windows Vista introduced the hardware-accelerated Desktop Window Manager, which allowed for advanced effects such as translucent title bars used by the new Windows Aero theme. For users whose hardware couldn't handle Aero, Windows Vista also included the software rendered Windows Basic theme.

The option to disable the DWM was removed in Windows 8, together with the ability to switch to the classic theme. The Aero Lite theme was introduced in Windows 8 to replace the classic theme, which allows the user to customize its colors to a greater extent than regular visual styles, which allowed it to be used for the High Contrast accessibility feature. However, the classic theme implementation as well as support for disabled DWM still remains included with Windows for compatibility purposes.

Supported platforms
Since its initial release, Windows has supported numerous platforms and systems. The original DOS-based line was constrained to systems based on the 8086 processor and later its successors, most important of which was the IBM PC and its successors, including their clones. However, several IBM-incompatible platforms were also supported, notably the Japanese NEC PC-98 architecture.

With the introduction of the portable Windows NT line, support for other processor designs was added. At its peak, Windows NT 4.0 supported x86 as well as MIPS, DEC Alpha and PowerPC. However, the alternative platforms suffered from poor hardware support as well as lack of available software, which lead to the discontinuation of all platforms but x86 in Windows 2000. Windows XP then added support for the newly introduced Itanium, a 64-bit processor designed by Intel purported to eventually replace the aging x86 family. However, its performance proved to be underwhelming and AMD introduced its own 64-bit processor design which was based on the x86, support for which was added in a Windows Server 2003 service pack and Windows XP Professional x64 Edition.

During the development of Longhorn, Microsoft was experimenting with an ARM port, although it was later scrapped. The idea was revived for Windows 8 in order to target cheap, low power devices. The version of Windows 8 for ARM devices was called Windows RT, and while it was a full Windows environment, it was artificially limited to only run Windows Store applications and Microsoft-signed desktop applications, which lead to its market failure. ARM64 support was later added to Windows 10, which does not suffer from similar limitations, although the majority of sold Windows 10 devices are still x86-based. With Windows 11, Microsoft dropped support for the 32-bit x86 platform as well as the legacy BIOS boot process, leaving only AMD64 and ARM64 both using UEFI.

The following table lists commercial availability of NT-based Windows versions for each supported architecture:

Source code
In 2004, incomplete copies of the source code of Windows NT 4.0 and Windows 2000 leaked to the Internet. These leaks were illegal, as the Windows source code is both a trade secret and copyrighted, and as so is protected by law. However, Microsoft has released parts of the source of the Windows Server 2003 kernel for research purposes.

In 2017, The Register and other technology journals reported about a leak of the Windows 10 Shared Source Kits, which are available to qualified customers, enterprises, governments, and partners for debugging and reference purposes, to BetaArchive. Following the controversy, BetaArchive removed all source code content from its archives, which also included the aforementioned incomplete copies of the Windows source code, and adopted a policy of not accepting any more source code material.

In 2018, the source code of the Windows NT File Manager was released on GitHub under the open source MIT license. This was later followed in 2019 by the Windows 10 Calculator application.

In May 2020, a copy of the source code of Windows NT 3.5 build 782.1 leaked to the 4chan /vp/ board. Though it is compilable, it lacks source files for some components such as encryption. Another leak later followed in September with the source code of Windows XP Service Pack 1 and Windows Server 2003. The leaked copy is mostly complete. Since the activation components are absent within both repositories, it is likely that the leak originated from a Microsoft partner who had access to the source code rather than Microsoft itself. This code base had been apparently circulating in online circles since at least 2015.

Cairo era

 * Cairo
 * Version: NT 4.00 in 1995, earlier versions unknown
 * Developed 1992-1995, scheduled release date unknown.
 * Development started but project was later scrapped, many of its features were released as part of other versions.

Nashville era

 * Nashville
 * Version: 4.10
 * Developed 1995, scheduled for release in 1996
 * Development started, project goals later transferred to Memphis and Internet Explorer 4.

Windows 2000 era

 * Neptune
 * Version: NT 5.50
 * Developed 1998-1999, scheduled for release in 2001
 * Canceled in January 2000 and replaced with the Whistler project that would later become Windows XP.


 * Triton
 * Scheduled for release in 2001
 * Never left the drafting board, supposed to be a minor update to Neptune, canceled in January 2000.


 * Odyssey
 * According to antitrust documents it was already in development before getting canceled in January 2000.

Whistler era

 * Longhorn
 * Version: NT 6.0
 * Developed 2001-2004, scheduled for release in 2003-2006
 * Initially supposed to be an interim release between Whistler and Blackcomb, the project objectives eventually included a lot of features originally intended for Blackcomb. Development was reset in 2004.


 * Blackcomb
 * Scheduled for release in 2003-2004
 * Originally a major update to Longhorn. Allegedly later renamed to Vienna.

Windows Core OS derivatives

 * Andromeda / Andromeda OS
 * Developed 2016-~2019
 * Scheduled for release in late 2018
 * A Windows Core OS derivative designed to be the operating system running on the Surface Duo (which was codenamed Andromeda). It was canceled in favour of Android during the device's development.


 * Polaris
 * Version: NT 10.0
 * Developed ~2017
 * Scheduled for release in 2018-2019
 * A Windows Core OS based Windows release that would power older desktops and low performance laptops. It was later canceled for unknown reasons.


 * Windows 10X
 * Version: NT 10.0
 * Developed ~2019-2021
 * A version that would have been made for dual-screen devices, later changed to be made for single-screen devices. It was later canceled in favor of integrating key technologies to existing products.